How Imperialism and Colonialism Affect Student Politics: A Comparative Study

By Fakhrunisa Abulfazil, Geetika Jayachandaran, Zhadyra Khamza, and Allen Sandra Puthussery Sunil (@globalhistorylab)

Introduction by Elvira Viktória Tamus (@evtamus; evt27@cam.ac.uk), Teaching Fellow at the Global History Lab and PhD Candidate at the Faculty of History, University of Cambridge 

In our third and final piece in a series of essays written by students of the Sapienza University of Rome and the Cambridge-based Global History Lab, we discuss how imperialism and colonialism affect student politics by comparing three regions in Central and South Asia – India, Afghanistan, and Kazakhstan. Our global learners analyse how these three education systems were shaped by foreign powers and their respective political ideologies, highlighting similarities and differences alike. They pay particular attention to the role of social media, forms of violence, as well as the impact of movements.

The approach of global history is still often criticised for being Eurocentric or at least based on Western perspectives. Therefore, an essay written by young historians who have a high level of regional literacy and at the same time are knowledgeable about the world’s interconnectedness is a most welcome contribution. This essay on student activism is a worthy conclusion to the Global History Lab series and the previous two pieces on the perceptions of communist symbols and student protests around the world. It leaves us with a moving and thought-provoking message: ‘The future of student politics will depend on how well young generations can navigate national identities and break cycles of past inequalities and divisions rather than repeat them.’

In 1905, a group of students from Eden College in Calcutta burned an effigy of Lord Curzon, the then Viceroy of India, to protest the partition of Bengal. This event became one of the earliest recorded instances of student-led protests in South Asia, laying the foundation for student activism in the years to come. After India gained independence, student activism continued, with major political parties forming student wings and independent student groups emerging to advocate for  social and economic justice.

These initial protests were not isolated events but part of a broader wave of student engagement in the struggle for independence. Across Asia, students played a vital role in opposing colonial rule and advocating for freedom. From arranging protests to leading strikes, student organisations became central to the political movements in this region. This article explores how the long history of imperialism and colonialism in Central and South Asia influenced and shaped student movements.

India

From the anti-colonial movements of the twentieth century to contemporary struggles for social justice, reform, and democracy, students have played a pivotal role in driving change in India. After independence in 1947, the Congress Party initially tried to separate student activism from politics, leading to a temporary decline in student engagement. Still, student protests persisted, addressing national and local issues. More recently, student participation in anti-corruption movements and protests against the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) in 2019 has showcased their ongoing influence in challenging unjust policies.

Today, student politics in India is a mix of traditional party affiliations and emerging identity-based movements. Students from marginalised backgrounds are increasingly asserting their voices and rights within the educational sphere, creating a more fragmented yet dynamic political environment. Issues of autonomy, representation, and social justice are central to the ongoing student activism on campuses. Student organisations such as Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP), Students Federation of India (SFI), and National Students’ Union of India (NSUI) continue to shape the political discourse on campuses.

Afghanistan

During the 1960s, political parties began to emerge in Afghanistan, influenced by global independence movements and post-colonial struggles. Students, banned from forming political organisations since the 1950s, channelled their activism through established parties representing socialist, communist, Islamist, and nationalist ideologies. During the Soviet invasion, student politics became polarised between communists and Islamists, reflecting the broader ideological divide central to the war.

After the war, the US-backed Islamist victory led to a shift in power towards Islamic movements, sidelining secular or communist ideologies. In the post-Taliban era, political groups became increasingly fractured along ethnic lines (Pashtun, Hazara, Tajik, Uzbek), significantly influencing student politics. By the Republic period, student activism increasingly mirrored ethnic divisions rather than ideological ones, Student councils and unions were predominantly ethnic-based, representing the rights and interests of their respective ethnic groups. This shift from ideological activism to ethnically fragmented mobilisation highlights how student politics was reshaped by Afghanistan’s history of foreign intervention and post-colonial nation-building efforts. 

Central Asia

In contrast to India and Afghanistan, where student activism was tied to anti-colonial struggles, student politics in Central Asia was shaped by Soviet rule which imposed centralised control over educational institutions, prioritising Russification and ideology. Edward Said’s concept of ‘Orientalism’ illustrates how Soviet narratives historically framed Central Asia as ‘backward’ , in order to justify their policies of modernisation and control. Students in this region are navigating a complex balance between decolonisation and modern state-building, while continuously facing challenges of inclusivity and effectiveness in the twenty-first-century globalized context.

One example is ‘Kazakhstanisation’, a movement at Al-Farabi Kazakh National University that seeks to revive Kazakh culture through language events and history workshops. While these initiatives promote cultural pride, they also risk excluding non-Kazakh and Russian-speaking students,  unintentionally recreating the very hierarchies colonialism established. This raises a critical question: Are these movements fostering inclusivity, or are they simply reversing historical patterns of marginalisation?

Contemporary student activism also intersects with global education trends. Western educational models like the Bologna Process have introduced liberal democratic values, encouraging critical thinking and open discourse. However, these models often prioritise international recognition over local traditions, creating tensions between international competitiveness and cultural preservation. For example, at Nazarbayev University, student govenments advocate for freedom in academic and political debate, challenging lingering restrictions inherited from the Soviet era. Yet, within an authoritarian political framework, such movements face significant barrier to achieve systemic change.

In the twenty-first century, economic challenges also play a major role in shaping youth activism. In Kazakhstan, rising unemployment and income inequality have led many students to focus on job security over cultural or political activism. While digital platforms have transformed student engagement, allowing for rapid mobilisation, as seen during the 2022 protests, government censorship continues to limit their impact.

Comparison and Conclusion

Similarly, India, Afghanistan, and Central Asia have education systems shaped by foreign powers, designed to promote state loyalty and reinforce political ideologies. This legacy continues to influence student activism, though in different ways. In India and Afghanistan, student movements are often tied to national independence or left-wing causes. In Central Asia, however, the Soviet legacy has shaped student politics around economic issues, nationalism, and resistance to post-Soviet authoritarianism.

On a complementary note, social media has become a powerful tool for student activism to organise, mobilise, and raise awareness about political causes across Asia. Student-led movements often use viral hashtags like #alleyeson or #whatshappeningin to spread their messages. As many governments tightly control traditional media and suppress dissent, social media provides an alternative for students to speak out and mobilise support across borders.

While violence is a feature of student politics in all these regions, its form and frequency vary. In India, student protests often turn violent, leading to strikes and clashes with security forces. Movements like the Naxalbari uprising (1960s) and CAA protests (2019) saw tensions between student groups over caste, class, and identity issues. In Central Asia, violence is less common but state repression is swift and harsh. Students often face surveillance, harassment, and imprisonment for political activism.

The effectiveness of student politics differs as well. In India, student movements have historically had a visible and direct impact, often sparking major political change. In contrast, the impact in Central Asia tends to be more subtle, where movements often crushed before they can bring about significant reform.

In conclusion, student activism plays a crucial role in political and social change across these regions. However, for activism to have a lasting impact, students must address both political and economic challenges. The future of student politics will depend on how well young generations can navigate national identities and break cycles of past inequalities and divisions rather than repeat them.

Cover Image: All Assam Students Union (AASU) members conduct a torch procession protesting against the CAA in Guwahati. Image accessed on 21 January 2025 via Free Malasia Today: https://www.freemalaysiatoday.com/category/world/2024/03/13/us-un-express-concern-about-indias-citizenship-law/

Bibliography / Further reading

“A Brief History of Student Protests in India.” Hindustan Times, 18 Dec. 2019, https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/a-brief-history-of-student-protests-in-india/story-zYvk2GeblUVBtzjOzcLA1N.html. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

“Webinar on Student Politics: Summary Paper.” Muragala, 11 Nov. 2024, https://muragala.lk/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/Webinar-on-Student-Politics-Summary-Paper.pdf. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

Dulanjana, Sachinda. “Student Politics in Sri Lanka.” The Bloomsbury Handbook of Student Politics and Representation in Higher Education, edited by Manja Klemencic, Bloomsbury Academic, 2024, pp. 307-326.

Giustozzi, Antonio. Between Patronage and Rebellion: Student Politics in Afghanistan. Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU), Feb. 2010, https://www.refworld.org/reference/countryrep/areu/2010/en/72035. Accessed 31 Jan. 2025.

Kudaibergenova, Diana T. “National Identity and Nation-Building in Post-Soviet Kazakhstan.” Nationalities Papers, vol. 45, no. 2, 2017, pp. 256-274.

Laruelle, Marlene. “The Nazarbayev Generation: Post-Soviet Youth and Nation-Building in Kazakhstan.” Central Asian Survey, vol. 38, no. 2, 2019, pp. 179-196.

Mannan, Abdul. Student Politics in Pakistan. Unpublished graduate research project, Institute of Business Administration, Pakistan, 2017, https://ir.iba.edu.pk/research-projects-emba/127. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

Martelli, Jean-Thomas, and Kristina Garalytė. “Generational Communities: Student Activism and the Politics of Becoming in South Asia.” South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal, vol. 22, no. 22, 2020, pp. 1-44.

Paracha, Nadeem Farooq. “Student Politics in Pakistan: From Revolution to Restriction and a Possible Revival.” The Friday Times, 16 Feb. 2022, https://thefridaytimes.com/16-Feb-2022/student-politics-in-pakistan-from-revolution-to-restriction-and-a-possible-revival. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

Rizve, Saqlain. “Bangladesh’s Student Politics: Storied History, Brutal Violence.” The Diplomat, 25 Oct. 2024, https://thediplomat.com/2024/10/bangladeshs-student-politics-storied-history-brutal-violence/. Accessed 29 Jan. 2025.

Schatz, Edward. Modern Clan Politics: The Power of “Blood” in Kazakhstan and Beyond. University of Washington Press, 2004.

Sinha, Soumodip. “Politicization of Universities in a Postcolonial Context: A Historical Sketch of Student Political Activism in India.” Esboços, vol. 29, no. 51, 2022, pp. 232–52.

Toleubayev, Gulnar. “The Role of Student Movements in Post-Soviet Kazakhstan: A Critical Analysis.” Journal of Central Asian Studies, vol. 12, no. 1, 2021, pp. 45-66.